NATO Essay Online For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2695 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Politics Essay Type Review Did you like this example? ILP CW3 336083 The use of force has been a long-debated topic within the scope of collective security and can be said to be linked directly to the sovereignty of states. Along the passing of time, unauthorized use of force or threats has been abolished and now, it has become a rule of law making such acts to be war crimes. Generally impermissible, however there will be certain situations where use of force can be deemed lawful such as for the purposes of self-defence, humanitarian intervention and pre-emptive power inter alia. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "NATO Essay Online For Free" essay for you Create order In the following part of this essay, the discussion will be based largely on UN and NATOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s previous humanitarian operations, assessing the details of intervention of the said organizations. The United Nations Charter in article 2(4)[1] restricts the use of force by member of states to the UN. The charter explicitly prohibits members in their international relations to act against territorial or political independence of any state by threat of force or other acts inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.[2] This has been made law upon the ratification of all member states and is protected by the United Nations Charter 1945. Academics translated this provision to be prohibiting the use of force as in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“territorial integrity or political independence of statesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ; and exception to this would be instances such as self-defence and those listed under Chapter VIII by the UN Security Council. The general principle is to restrict the u se of armed forces except in cases such as; there is collective action-pursued to maintain or to restore peace[3]; and Article 51 which provides that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right to individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a state.[4] Referring back to self-defence, On March 23rd, 1999, NATO began a three-month-long bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, allegedly to prevent the ethnic cleansing of Kosovar Albanians in the semi-autonomous region of Serbia by Slobodan MiloseviÃÆ'„à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s authoritarian regime. Mr Robertson, Secretary of State for Defence at that time, expressed the Governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s stand regarding the multinational NATO intervention in Kosovo as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"We are in no doubt that NATO is acting within international law. Our legal justification rests upon the accepted principle that force may be used in extrem e circumstances to avert a humanitarian catastrophe. Those circumstances clearly exist in Kosovoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[5] The use of force in such circumstances can be justified as a peculiar measure parallel to the purposes laid down by the UN Security Council, but without the Councils express authorisation, when that is the only means to avert an immediate and overwhelming humanitarian catastrophe. UN Security Council resolution 1199 clearly calls on the Yugoslav authorities to take immediate steps to cease their repression of the Kosovar Albanians and to seek solution to the issue. During the NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999, NATOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision to deploy armed forces did not acquire clear legal authorization as its governments might have desired. Despite these, a clear cut judgment could not be achieved as to its legality. The main legal arguments used to support the NATO action in Kosovo according to Adam Roberts (Roberts 1999) would concern the United Nations Resolutions. UN resolution 1199 of 23rd September 1998 demanded Yugoslavia to cease all action by the forces that are affecting the member of public. Upon this warning, it was explicitly stated that action would be taken should the demand not be followed. Resolution 1203 of 24th October 1998 required the Serbs to conform to a number of key provisions of the accords completed in Belgrade. These resolutions also allowed the NATO Alliance to have a direct standing and interest in the affair of Kosovo. Having said these, if the UN Security Council couldnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t follow these resolutions into Kosovo with a specific authority to use force, the legal ground for NATOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s military action could be found in the resolution. On 26th March 1999, two days after the bombing started, Russia supported a draft UN resolution calling for an immediate termination of the use of force against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Russiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s stand was supported by two non-member states, India and Belarus. Only three member states (Russia, China and Namibia) voted in favour and twelve against this draft resolution. Sovereignty of state could not be said to be an absolute good. According to John Simmons, a legal definition of a right that is dependent on the safeguard of citizens within such a state (Simmons 1999). If these citizens are treated with oppression, then there is a legal basis for external force or powers, under the authorization of the United Nations, to step in to intervene for humanitarian purposes. Human interest should replace national interest as the driving force of human effort. State boundaries are merely social and political in nature that may vary according to beliefs, cultural or political agendas. Human interest is irreversible. Whatever moral good the entity of statehood is believed to have, it must prioritize the greater necessities of the rights of humanity. The United Nations Security-General (UNSG) introdu ced something they called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"vision of collective securityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ which appealed to UN member states. The vision outlines a holistic notion of human security, including a common peace-building mission, along with several new organizations that works towards the purpose of the UN.[6] Along time as liberalization is expected to lead to democratization, humanitarian efforts are expected to lead to peacekeeping, and democratization to peacebuilding. In simple words, it is expected that peacekeeping will lead to self-sustainable peace between, within and across states. Joensson in his article states that unfortunately, in theory and practice, it is suggested that collective security discourse is overestimating the stabilizing effects of negotiated peace agreements and UN multidimensional peacekeeping under the current collective security arrangement.[7] Efforts to end and prevent conflict and implement processed of political and economic liberalization have called on forceful armed power intervention and intrusive protocols that are proven to be detrimental democratization and peace.[8] Joensson further commented that the UN on several occasions have been à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"forced to compromise its objectives to match the little success that has actually been achieved in practice.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ This suggests that instead of strengthening the post-conflict states from within, the multidimensional operations are conveying an international culture of dependency in which the internal stability of weak states become increasingly dependent on external assistance.[9] Having said this, there is a clash between short and long-term goals if multidimensional peacekeeping, and a gap between UNà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s power to act, as well as between the collective security discourse and global world order.[10] A generally accepted example of the success of collective security would be the Gulf War that taken place in 1990. The Security Council passed resol utions calling for unconditional withdrawal including Article 41 for economic sanctions and Chapter VII for a US-led alliance of armed forces. After 6 weeks, operation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Desert Stormà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ had totally broken the resistance of Iraqi troops. The key point to note here is the legitimating function of collective security by the UN. Although it happens that powerful state may override the protocol of bypassing the legitimization process, examples such the 2003 Iraq invasion subsequently led to serious unease. Claude also makes this point naming the UN as an à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"agency of collective legitimizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. It is suggested that with the approval of the Security Council, use of force could be conceived as acceptable because of such endorsement. Despite the UN playing such a significant role in international relations, there is still doubt as to whether the UN is successful in achieving its purpose in collective security. The Cold War is one o f the failures of the UN in achieving the so-called collective security, reason being the veto given by Article 27 Chapter3. Consequently, the operation was paralyzed because any threat to the interests of the US or the Soviet Union resulted in a veto preventing the UN from taking action. Efforts of collective security by the UN are hampered when there is superpower present among the parties. Although collective security is said to be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"superiorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the sense that the preponderant physical powerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to defer or defect potential breaches of peace and security and because the overall diffusion power is more stabilizing than shifts in the distribution of power.[11] This operates in contrary when there is a single superpower that is stronger than the collective powers. An example of this case is when America took a unilateral use of force when armed forces were deployed in Iraq on 2003 without the approval of the Security Council. Claude emphasized the failing system of collective security and linking this to the Korean War. He stated à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"it is neither feasible to carry out nor prudent to undertake collective security operations direct or indirectly opposing a major power.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Another case that was brought forward to the Security Council is the Vietnam War where Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury mentioned the term à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"selective securityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in light of the flawed system of collective security.[12] Acts of aggression were obvious here in this situation but when Laos went against Hanoi in 1959, and Cambodia against USA and Vietnam in 1964, no actions were taken to restore peace. Up till this point, can collective security be said to be an effective system to fulfil the humanitarian purpose of the UN? Critics highlighted NATOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s lack of action in defence of Kurdish or East Timorese human rights from abuse by the Turkish and Indonesian s tates simultaneous to Operation Allied Force[13], and reinforced this as the evidence of selective moral conscience of the West. Questions were raised as to why NATO had acted only over Kosovo when there was no effort to restore peace and stop the Croatian governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ethnic cleansing of Serbs from the Krajina in 1995[14] The success of collective security could be measure by the fact that a major conflict has not broken out since the previous second world war, despite the demoralizing acts of the Islamic State taking place currently. However, UNà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"multidimensional peacekeepingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ approach, whereby conflicts and humanitarian emergencies are regarded as threats to peace, arguably has represented a new dawn of interventionist collective security[15]. Since the end of the Cold War, the UN has looked into very much humanitarian issues and intra-state conflict, where former Secretary General Kofi Annan argued that states have a duty to protect its own citizens, but in the event of a failure, that responsibility must be borne by the broader international community[16]. Of course it can be argued that it would be possible to intervene in every case of human right abuses, Booth responds that this à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"merely says that on a particular occasion NATO acted in accordance with humanitarian objectives; not that as a matter of principle that NATO acts out of respect for themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[17] On the other hand, Coady argues that it is important to scrutinize responses to humanitarian crises, as from a classical utilitarianism perspective, total impartiality between targets of intervention is necessary to ensure the best is achieved[18]. Although the previously mentioned critics are in agreement that Kosovar Albanians suffered immensely under the Yugoslav regime, they bought up that the primary motive for an action will have influence on the methods used, and that for humanitarian interven tions, the absence of humanitarianism at the core of the made decision could cause the lives of civilians. Adding on, the basis when NATO has made moral judgments to intervene or not adds to the suspicion that humanitarianism may not be the primary motive for deployment of force in Kosovo. In conclusion, collective security may have served as a very important solution to restoring and sustaining world peace but as to its effectiveness, some setbacks are evident through the examples elaborated above. From selective security to superpower states, collective security could not be said with confidence that it exist for the sole purpose of world peace. The intervention in Kosovo may have been necessary, but the motivation behind external armed force intervention is clouded and was not solely for humanitarian purpose. The system of collective security is inconsistent, hence having said all these, the question of effectiveness in practice could not be answered in the positive- The flawe d part is not the system as a whole but rather the methods chosen by external forces were highly flawed since there was lack of priority for humanitarianism. Bibligraphy Primary Sources United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3930.html [accessed 20 March 2015] Secondary Sources Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury, (1993), The UNà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Roles in International Society, United Nations, Divided World: The UNà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Roles in International Relations, 2nd Edition, United States, Oxford University Press, New York Booth, K. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Ten Flaws of Just Warsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions edited by Ken Booth (London, FrankKass, 2001) Barrie Watts,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ The Role of the United Nationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Black Rabbit Books, 2004, New York Charles A. Kupchan, Clifford A. Kupchan, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Concerts, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“collective securityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , and the Future of Europe, International Securityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ , Vol. 16, No. 1 (2001) Charles A. Kupchan, Clifford A. Kupchan, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The promise of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“collective securityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , International Security, The MIT press (1995) Coady, C.A.J. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"War for humanity: a critiqueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ â„ ¢ in Ethics and Foreign Intervention (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003 Florian Beiber, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Constitutional reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina: preparing for EU accession, Policy Brief, (European Policy Center Brussels, April 2010) Immanuel Kant, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Perpetual peace: a philosophical essay.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (G. Allen Unwin Ltd 1915) London Inis L Claude Jr., à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Swords into ploughshares the problems and progress of International Organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, 4th Edition, Random House (New York 1964) Joensson, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Understanding Collective Security in the 21st century: A critical Study of UN Peacekeeping in the former Yugoslaviaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (European University Institute, September 2010) Jackson and Sorensen, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Introduction to International Relations: Theories and approaches, (Oxford University Press, 2007) Natalia Ruiz, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Exploring the Limites of International Law relating to the Use of Force in Self-Defenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, EJIL 3 (2005) P. ThielbÃÆ' ¶rger, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Status and Future of International Law after the Libya Interventionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , 1 GJIL 4 (2012) UN, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"In Larger Freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all, adopted by the UN General Assembly on 21 March 2005 (A/59/2005) pp. 74-86 Vaughan Lowe, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"International Legal Issues Arising in the Kosovo crisisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, (Select Committee on Foreign Affairs Minutes of Evidence, 11 May 2000) https://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmfaff/28/0020805.htm accessed 20 March 2015 336083 [1] United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, Article 2(4), 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3930.html [accessed 20 March 2015] [2] ibid [3] ibid [4] United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, Article 51, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3930.html [accessed 20 March 2015] [5] Vaughan Lowe, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"International Legal Issues Arising in the Kosovo crisisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, (Select Committee on Foreign Affairs Minutes of Evidence, 11 May 2000) https://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmfaff/28/0020805.htm accessed 20 March 2015 [6] In Larger Freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all, adopted by the UN General Assembly on 21 March 2005 (A/59/2005) pp. 74-86 [7] Joensson, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Understanding Collective Security in the 21st century: A critical Study of UN Peacekeeping in the former Yugoslaviaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (European University Institute, September 2010) https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/14711/2010_Joensson.pdf?sequence=2 assessed 19 November 2009 [8] Florian Beiber, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Constitutional reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina: preparing for EU accession, Policy Brief, (European Policy Center Brussels, April 2010) [9] Joensson, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Understanding Collective Security in the 21st century: A critical Study of UN Peacekeeping in the former Yugoslaviaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (European University Institute, September 2010) https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/14711/2010_Joensson.pdf?sequence=2 assessed 19 November 2009 [10] ibid [11] Fhorwich, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Collective Security: How is this principle articulated in the aims of the UN and has that organisation been successful in achieving those aims?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, (Scribd, 10 November 2009) https://www.scribd.com/doc/22370484/Collective-Security-Essay-Define-collective-security-How-is-th is-principle-articulated-in-the-aims-of-the-UN-and-has-that-organisation-been-succe#scribd Assessed 10 March 2015 [12] Adam Roberts,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ The UNà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Roles in International Society, united Nations, Divided World: The UNà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Roles in International Relations, ( 2nd edition, United States, Oxford University Press 1993) [13] Chomsky, N. A New Generation Draws the Lone: Kosovo, East Timor and the Standards of the West (London verso,200) [14] Roberts, A. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"NATOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Humanitarian Warà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ over Kosovoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, (Survival, 41 1999) 3 pp102-23 [15] Taylor and Curtis, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Kosovoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, London, OUP 2001) 412 [16] Ibid 415 [17] Booth, K. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Ten Flaws of Just Warsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions edited by Ken Booth (London, FrankKass, 2001) pp. 314-324 [18] Coady, C.A.J. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"War for hum anity: a critiqueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in Ethics and Foreign Intervention (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003 pp 274-295

The Influence of Jazz in America - 1187 Words

Boom-ba-doom, boom-ba-doom-catz, the swinging back beat of the jazz percussionist, smooth but precise and within time. The pianists fingers flutter across the keys weightlessly, and so quickly you can only make out a blur. The trumpet and saxophone float across the top of the music hitting notes of all kinds, paying no attention to the idea of a key signature, and from no piece of paper no prewritten ideas. Instead, they play what they feel inside, because the very soul of jazz lives inside. Of all the musical instruments, the human voice expresses the most emotion. Anyone can play their own voice and that is exactly what the people of the 1920s did. Is there a connection between these instruments and life during the â€Å"Roaring Twenties?† Louis Armstrong said it best: â€Å"What we play is life† (Armstrong). Different instruments used in the jazz era are direct reflections of the feelings of the 1920s. Jazz is defined as a distinctive musical profile grounded in the swinging 4/4 time with the Blues as a touchstone. It is one of those things that is very hard to define because it includes so many different feelings. Louis Armstrong made this comment when asked what jazz is: â€Å"If you have to ask, you’ll never know† (Armstrong). There is up beat jazz and slow jazz, there is depressed jazz and energetic jazz, and there is everything in between. In a jazz band, the musical baton can be passed to any of its members and then he or she carries the bandShow MoreRelatedJazz Influence On America.3049 Words   |  13 PagesResearch Paper: Jazz influence on America Jazz is a genre of music that was first developed by African American within their communities around the late 19th to early 20th century in the United States. Since then, Jazz has gained a lot of respect and grown into a classic. 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Comparable Business Model Concepts †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Comparable Business Model Concepts. Answer: Introduction: Business models are the frameworks on which the companies stand and operate. They are made up of the various aspects related to the organisations like vision, mission, goals, organisational culture and strategies. The business models of the multinational companies even incorporate competitors, business partners and consumers as parts of their business models. The business models of the companies are formed by the apex management and reflect the organisational culture. It is this reason business models are often e-business archetype or personalities of the organisations. The business models also serve a platform for the organisational operations and a framework which is aligned with the financial goals of the companies. They provide guidance to the managers to make strategies to reduce costs and maximise profits and return on investments. Business model can be defined as the framework on which business organisations operate in the market. The business models consists of several aspects of the organisations like core values, missions, business visions, target customer segments, business strategies and stakeholders. The business models of the companies are the practical applications of the values, missions and visions(Bocken et al., 2014). The multinational companies define their business models according to the organisational culture and organisational policies. The macroeconomic changes compel the organisations to change reform their business models to sustain in the market. Thus, business models aim to provide the organisations to which they belong sustenance and continuous growth in the market. Business model archetypes involve the fundamental personalities of the business and their products. The business models of the organisations include the main activities of the business organisations, their main values, customer bases which they cater to and how they create value for the customers (Beck, Demirg-Kunt Merrouche, 2013). They are the framework on which strategies stand and involves modes of operations like open innovations with other firms. The companies often lose their knowledge and expertise when employees leave them. These loss of strategic human resources weaken companies and their business model. Carl Jung created a model called business model archtype which human being inherit and use to make their own personalities. The model was applied to business organisations because they are believed to be legal personalities. The model speaks about three primary personalities of all business organisations which are product, services and trade. The secondary personality trai ts in business organisations are brokerage, subscriptions, market place and ecosystem(Bohnsack, Pinkse Kolk, 2014). Business model as an activity systems involve the various activities of the business organisations which are required for their very sustenance. The model looks at business organisations as collections of various functions like acquisition of resources, employing of uman resources, acquiring of machinery, supply chain management, production lines. The business models as activity systems involve partners, suppliers and customers. They reflect the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities of products and projects. Thus it can be opined that business model is an activities involving resources, processes and so on to earn profits(Schwarz, Terrenghi Legner, 2017). Business model as cost-revenue architecture involve the business models to make profits. This approach deals with the aim of the business models to maximise revenues and reduce the costs of the company. The concept involves use of modern technology to increase production and maximise sales to earn more profit from it. The business models of companies as revenue generation and cost reduction tool involve disruptive innovations, new market penetration, application of sustainable technology, aggressive promotions and inclusion of stakeholders while making business strategies(Aversa et al., 2015). This important role of business in todays has given rise to the concept of business model continuum which shows how business organisations modify and adopt their business models to operate on a great scale by adapting to market conditions. The continuum works on a scale showing commodity products on one end which are sold on high scale lower profit margin and luxury products on the other end wh ich sell at scale but at higher margins of products. The when business organisations shift along the scale from low priced to high priced products, their entire business model including sales and marketing components of the model change(Visnjic, Wiengarten Neely, 2016). The conceptualisation of the business models help the organisations deal with static and dynamic problems and involves redesigning of business model. The business organisations have to deal with several static and dynamic problems. The business organisations have to deal with static business problems which make the business operations extremely complex like political situations in the country, lack of local supply chain and lack of technological development in a within a country. The business organisations are required to frame and redesign their business models to deal with these complexities(Serdarasan, 2013). For example, if the local supply chain cannot provide certain raw materials, the business organisations have to import it. This show that the business organisations have redesign their business models to deal with the complexities presented by the dynamic and static complexities in the environment. Business context refers to a condition in the market involving a business organisation, a business community or an industry as a whole and keeps on changing. The business conditions are dependent on the static and dynamic environmental conditions and tend to change with them. For example, the automobile manufacturing companies are impacted by changes in the laws pertaining to areas pollution and road safety. These organisations have to maintain a vast reserve of information or big data which has made them adopt knowledge management system and integrating technology(Naldi et al., 2013). They are today required to maintain this huge data base to able to operate with a large number of suppliers and distributors all round the world. The automobile companies today have to reconfigure their supply chains to obtain sustainable and less polluting raw materials in response to the stringent environmental laws which have come into force in all the major economies in the world. Moreover the inte rnational automobile manufacturing and marketing companies have expanded their operations into all the major markets of the world which require them to adopt supply chain in these markets. This requires them to reconfigure and restructure the supply chain management policies which are important components of business models of these companies. They are also required to acquire, store and share a large body of business information to operate on regular basis. The top automobile companies today exchange and share these information with their geographically dispersed branches, supply chains and distributors spread throughout the world. It can also be pointed the companies integrate technology and sustainability to produce goods(Romn Juan Martn, 2014). They invest in technology to manage and recycle wastes and use them to generate energy which helps them to reduce their energy expenses. The automobile companies use modern technology like cloud computing and data sharing on cloud to com municate with their business partners. Thus, it can be inferred from the above discussion that companies today redesign their business models to incorporate changes like big data, supply chain reconfiguration, and technological integration (Brock et al., 2013). The business models of the organisations are impacted by changes in the macroeconomic environment which necessitates the business managers to make strategies to adapt the business model according to the changes. The macroeconomic environmental factors like politics economics, society, technology, law and environment are beyond the control of the business organisations yet have profound impact on the strategies and even the very sustenance of the organisations. For example, all commercial banking organisations are required to follow the financial policies made by the apex bank, governments and the international agreement between countries to operate. If there is any change in the financial policies made by any of these three institutions, the apex management bodies of the commercial banks have to redesign their business models(Fischer Heutel, 2013). The middle and the lower managers have to ensure that the redesigned models are followed by all the employees. The changes in the econom ic or market conditions also trigger the managers to redesign the business models. If a multinational companies introduces a new and innovative product at low price, the domestic companies have to redesign their business models to apply modes of operations to be able to introduce low priced new product of the same category as the MNCs product(Guerry et al., 2015). The change in the methods of operations may involve huge investment in technological up gradation and hiring of new highly paid skilled employees. It can be pointed out that domestic companies who fail to modify their business models to adapt to these changes often have to exit from the market or are acquired by the multinational companies. Thus, the upper, middle and the lower level managers have to redesign business models according to changes in the external environment. It can be concluded that business models play crucial role in ensuring the sustenance and growth of companies. They guide the employees to operate to add value and minimise expenditure of the company. Therefore the managers keep on restructuring the business models of the companies to adapt them to the market changes. It can also be pointed out that a successful business model and its application require strong support and participation of the employees of all levels and departments. It also requires the support from stakeholders like customers, shareholders and the government. References: Aversa, P., Haefliger, S., Rossi, A., Baden-Fuller, C. (2015). From business model to business modelling: Modularity and manipulation. InBusiness models and modelling(pp. 151-185). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Beck, T., Demirg-Kunt, A., Merrouche, O. (2013). Islamic vs. conventional banking: Business model, efficiency and stability.Journal of Banking Finance,37(2), 433-447. Bocken, N. M. P., Short, S. W., Rana, P., Evans, S. (2014). A literature and practice review to develop sustainable business model archetypes.Journal of cleaner production,65, 42-56. Bohnsack, R., Pinkse, J., Kolk, A. (2014). Business models for sustainable technologies: Exploring business model evolution in the case of electric vehicles.Research Policy,43(2), 284-300. Brock, C., Blut, M., Evanschitzky, H., Kenning, P. (2013). Satisfaction with complaint handling: a replication study on its determinants in a business-to-business context.International journal of research in marketing,30(3), 319-322. Fischer, C., Heutel, G. (2013). Environmental macroeconomics: Environmental policy, business cycles, and directed technical change.Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ.,5(1), 197-210. Guerry, A. D., Polasky, S., Lubchenco, J., Chaplin-Kramer, R., Daily, G. C., Griffin, R., ... Feldman, M. W. (2015). Natural capital and ecosystem services informing decisions: From promise to practice.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,112(24), 7348-7355. Naldi, L., Cennamo, C., Corbetta, G., Gomez?Mejia, L. (2013). Preserving socioemotional wealth in family firms: Asset or liability? The moderating role of business context.Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,37(6), 1341-1360. Romn, S., Juan Martn, P. (2014). Does the hierarchical position of the buyer make a difference? The influence of perceived adaptive selling on customer satisfaction and loyalty in a business-to-business context.Journal of Business Industrial Marketing,29(5), 364-373. Schwarz, J., Terrenghi, N., Legner, C. (2017). Towards comparable business model concepts: resource description framework (RDF) schemas for semantic business model representations. InDesigning the Digital Transformation: DESRIST 2017 Research in Progress Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Design Science Research in Information Systems and Technology. Karlsruhe, Germany. 30 May-1 Jun.. Karlsruher Institut fr Technologie (KIT). Serdarasan, S. (2013). A review of supply chain complexity drivers.Computers Industrial Engineering,66(3), 533-540. Visnjic, I., Wiengarten, F., Neely, A. (2016). Only the brave: Product innovation, service business model innovation, and their impact on performance.Journal of Product Innovation Management,33(1), 36-52. Zott, C., Amit, R. and Massa, L., 2011. The business model: recent developments and future research.Journal of management,37(4), pp.1019-1042.

Social influence and anti social behaviour

Introduction Experiments on social influence help to determine whether a person behaves in accordance to one’s social context or one’s personality. They emphasise the importance of the implied, real or envisaged existence of others. Individuals spend most of their time in social gatherings and they can exert an influence on group members or the reverse may occur.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social influence and anti social behaviour specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Indeed, most people’s attitudes reflect the belief systems of their respective groups. To effectively understand human behaviour, one must fully appreciate the role that social context plays in influencing it. Experiments on social context can demystify antisocial behaviour because they provide a theoretical basis for deviations from the norm. How research helps in the understanding of social behaviour One classic piece of soci al influence research is the Asch conformity as carried out by Solomon Asch. He was one of the most important contributors of the antisocial behavioural discipline because he demystified the concept of group conformance (Turner 1991). In his analysis, the experimenter used two types of cards for all the participants. One card had a standard line while the other card had three different lines. Subjects were supposed to match the lines on the second card with the standard line. This was a relatively simply test that had a clear answer. However, the subjects were placed in the company of others and answered after all the confederates (5, 6 or seven in number) had responded. It was found that twelve out of the eighteen subjects changed their minds when the perceived members of the team did the same. When these participants were asked to identify the correct line privately, they gave the right answer. This experiment illustrated that members of a group will be under pressure to conform t o other’s people’s opinions even when they know that the opinions they hold are wrong. Ash’s study was critical in illustrating the importance of normative social influence. His subjects deliberately gave a wrong answer because they wanted to adhere to group norms. At the time of the experiment, it was necessary to follow the instructions of members of the group. Their feelings and expectations were imperative in bringing out these outcomes. In fact, conformance was so important to the subjects that they were willing to support an answer that they knew was obviously wrong (Bond Smith 1996). Similarly, one may apply this information to groups that engage in antisocial behaviour. A young man may participate in a violent activity, group rape or robbery owing to the type of social influence found in Ash’s experiment.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More He may kno w that the activity is immoral, but may choose to engage in it simply to conform to group expectations. Such subjects seek group rewards or want to evade social punishment. This public conformity may explain why certain people act appropriately in private and inappropriately in a group especially when the action they are doing is undoubtedly wrong/ immoral. Asch’s work also provides useful insights on self categorisation. This theory posits that sometimes people may justify their antisocial behaviour in groups by depersonalizing themselves from the situation (Koelen Van den Ban 2010). They may claim that their behaviour was in tandem with the group, and this was the right thing to do. Participants may hold the expectation that when in a group, one is expected to hold the same attitudes or beliefs as the group. They depend upon the choices of others to gauge whether their own actions are correct. The Milgram experiment was yet another classic piece of work on social influence and can also provide tremendous insights on antisocial behaviour. It was carried out amongst a group of volunteers who were made to believe that they were playing the role of a teacher. A confederate was placed in an adjacent room, and was expected to learn a series of words from the teacher. For every wrong response, the teacher was to administer an electric shock to the learner. However, confederates did not receive actual shocks. The experimenter simulated sounds and noises that sounded like electric shocks. The confederates also pretended to be in pain by screaming and banging on the wall after a certain voltage level. They were supposed to tell the teacher about a heart condition that they had. If the subjects wanted to stop at a certain time, the experimenter would urge them to continue using a succession of four sentences, which stressed the critical importance of continuing. If the ‘teacher’ felt that he still wanted to stop after the four sentences, then the e xperiment would end (Wu 2003). However, others who asked about the confederates were assured that the shocks would not cause permanent harm to the ‘learners’. The results revealed that 65% of the subjects were willing to reach the maximum voltage even though they appeared to be uncomfortable doing so. Some questioned the ethics of the experiment and even refused payment.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social influence and anti social behaviour specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Unlike Asch’s trials, which simply dwelt on group influence, this research was crucial in understanding the role that authority plays in affecting people’s behaviour. Asch’s work compared moral values with social beliefs or opinions. However, Milgram contrasted authority with one’s moral beliefs. His study was critical in illustrating how authority can undermine moral principles and thus lead to ant isocial behaviour. Therefore, the concept of obedience to authority was under analysis here. More than half of the participants in the study were willing to forfeit their personal principles in order to obey authority. These findings illustrate how antisocial behaviour can occur among seemingly normal or ordinary people. Participants of this study believed that they were not expected to question authority. Similarly subordinates in other settings may commit immoral or antisocial crimes simply because they respect authority. They may be aware of the destructiveness or immorality of their situations, but may willingly participate in those wrongs because of submission to authority. The Milgram experiment also shows that individuals sometimes do not reflect on their beliefs when acting on behalf of an authority. This is reflective of the agentic state theory. In this school of thought, Milgram asserted that when people subject themselves to the authority of others, they may regard thems elves as mere instruments’ of their superior’s wishes rather than individual entities (Milgram 1974). As such, most people will not feel responsible for any actions when they engage in antisocial behaviour. In addition, this experiment is also a continuation of the theory of conformism that was started by Asch. Engaging in antisocial behaviour may sometimes be a form of reference to a group. In this case, the group is the authority figure. Conformity often occurs when the concerned person feels that he or she is not capable enough to make a certain decision. In such cases, the person will depend upon the group as a reference for behaviour (Hayes 2000). This especially occurs when an individual is in a crisis situation like the one in the concerned experiment. Such an analysis is especially relevant in understanding how some people may be prompted to behave in a manner similar to the one viewed in the Nazi concentration camps. The persons carrying out those actions reve aled that social influence can be dominant enough to lead to sadistic or inhumane acts as seen in the genocide.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Milgram proved that more often than not, people agree to belong to a system. When in that system, they have the choice of either sticking to their moral judgements or submitting to the rules of the system, which are represented by figures of authority. Loyalty may be regarded as a moral standard that shapes people’s behaviour. Therefore, when one makes a choice between these divided allegiances then one may or may not act in a deviant manner. The subjects in the experiment were more loyal to the rules of the system, which was the experiment, than their own belief systems and this perpetuated aggressive or violent behaviour. This experiment is highly useful in illustrating that the agentic state of an individual can lead to antisocial behaviour. One may belong to a corporation, and may be persuaded to carry out criminal/ unethical behaviour after receiving instructions from one’s supervisor. This study is useful in identifying the situations that cause obedience to unet hical instructions, and can thus allow stakeholders to either minimise those conditions or eradicate them completely. Phillip Zimbardo also carried out another famous study known as the Stanford Prison Experiment. His major aim was to find out how situational factors lead to deviant behaviour. The researcher created a fake prison at the basement of Stanford University and took 24 students into the setup. The experiment was supposed to last for a period of 2 weeks. Unlike Milgram, Zimbardo did not use confederates or actors as prisoners. All the participants were assigned roles as guards or prisoners. No prisoner was allowed to leave the premises while the guards could do so after an eight-hour shift. The experiment never went up to the intended two weeks as the prisoners were immensely stressed while the guards became sadistic and abusive. Zimbardo found that regardless of having two choices; being hostile or civil towards the prisoners, the guards chose to be hostile. Most of the p risoners took on a position of submission and depression. Some of them seemed to be highly anxious and even began crying. The researcher himself participated in the study; played the role of a prison warden. However, he stopped being objective in the analysis when he allowed the guards to act so brutally. It was Zimbardo’s girlfriend who warned him about the dangers of the experiment, and urged him to stop. After the experiment, it was found that certain situations can prompt seemingly passive individuals to act in a deviant or antisocial manner. When people are given positions of power, they yield to its influence and forget about the importance of their own moral values. The subjects who played the role of guards started to behave in a manner that was not typical of them. Many of them transformed from being passive to aggressive and even violent. Conversely, the subjects who played the role of guards became silent and passive. This analysis was important in understanding th e importance of social conformity. Most people will behave in a certain way owing to their understanding or society’s definition of the position. Police officers, teachers, parents, waitresses, prisoners or prison guards all fulfil certain social roles. Persons in these roles are expected to exhibit certain kinds of behaviour. The guards in the mock prison embraced their social roles and disregarded the fact that they might hurt their fellow participants. This was particularly surprising when Zimbardo himself acted inappropriately. Furthermore, the participants had not shown any signs of psychological malfunctions prior to the survey. Besides, none of the participants volunteered for the role as this would have denoted that certain elements of their personality came into effect. All were randomly assigned those positions without prior consultations. He acknowledged that he had gotten so carried away by his social role, as a warden, that he lost all objectivity of the analysis . Unlike Milgram’s study; this experiment had no specific authority. However, it did prove some of the findings in Asch’s study; that group expectations can replace an individual’s moral imperatives. In this case, no one voiced their expectations about what the prison guards or prisoners should do or say. This behaviour was deduced from expectations on those social roles. No form of coercion or force was exerted upon the participants, yet they found it within themselves to act so sadistically. This study shows that social influence can occur in non immediate settings. The persons concerned in the Zimbardo experiment did not seek immediate social rewards or refrain from immediate punishment. They were allured by the temptations of the powerful positions they were in (Zimbardo 2007). All the experiments discussed above on social influence also prove that conformity can be manipulated. Once a dissenting opinion is voiced by even one member, then that is sufficient enough to cause doubt about a certain act. Variations of the Asch and Milgram experiments have shown that people will be willing to abide by their own moral standards if they realise that other persons in their own position would be willing to do the same. Additionally, if a person heard about certain opinions from an in-group member, then he or she would be more likely to adhere to those same opinions than if the view came from a perceived outsider. Social influence can be moderated and this may minimise antisocial behaviour in subjects. Zimbardo, Asch and Milgram also demonstrate that social forces play a vital role in one’s deeds. Antisocial behaviour may arise out of the need to conform to societal expectations, direct group expectations or even a member of authority. These researches point out that sometimes, one’s personality or value systems can be overridden by certain social forces. Therefore, psychologists or other stakeholders may prevent or treat antisocial behaviour by minimising the occurrence of these group influences. It is particularly interesting to note that most of the deviant behaviour took place regardless of the anonymity of the participants. The subjects had no particular relationship with the researchers in all three social influence studies yet they still engaged in antisocial behaviour. One might conclude that peer influence among known associates and friends may exert an even heavier social influence on the deviant person. Social influence is a concept that can affect people in various capacities. It is so powerful because it has a two-way function. It offers rewards to the person engaging in the antisocial behaviour because it facilitates acceptance. It also offers rewards to the group because it elicits fewer negative sentiments from them. Social influence can thus impede or heighten antisocial behaviour based on these understandings (Guetzkow 2000) Conclusion The studies carried out on social influence illustrate th at it highly affects individual behaviour. These researches show that a person’s behaviour is firmly rooted in one’s social context. Sometimes this may come in the form of one’s peers, group, roles or authority figures. References Bond, R Smith, P 1996, ‘Culture and conformity: a meta analysis of studies using Asch’s line judgment task’ Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 119, pp. 11-137 Guetzkow, H 2000, Groups, leadership and men, Carnegie press, Pittsburgh Hayes, N 2000, Foundations of psychology, Thomson, London Koelen, M Van den Ban, A 2010, Health education and health promotion, Wageningen Academic Publishers, Melbourne Milgram, 1974, Obedience to authority: an experimental view, HarperCollins, London Turner, J 1991, Social influence, Open University Press, NY Wu, W 2003, ‘Compliance: the Milgram Experiment’ Practical psychology, June, pp. 23 Zimbardo, P 2007, ‘When good people do evil’ Yale Alumni magazine, Februar y, pp. 8 This essay on Social influence and anti social behaviour was written and submitted by user Anya Kirby to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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